In 352 A.D., the Roman Emperor Constantine convened the Council of Nicea in what is now Turkey, to settle the doctrine of the Christian Church, which was solely the Catholic Church.
Invitations were sent to all bishops across the vast Roman Empire, and many attended. The result was an inflexible doctrine, modelled largely upon the writings of the Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle, which was enforced across the Christian world by the popes, who controlled the monarchs.
Two philosophers who disagreed with the infallible doctrine that the earth is the centre of the universe, Giordano Bruno and Galileo Galilei, were dealt with harshly
Bruno was a brilliant lapsed Dominican priest who embraced pantheism, rejected fundamental Church dogma and beliefs, and made the amazingly prophetic yet heretical hypothesis that our world was but one in an infinite universe. He was executed on the order of the Roman Inquisition on February 17, 1600, after a seven-year trial, following which he was declared a heretic by Pope Clement VIII. He was subjected to the indignity of being suspended upside-down and naked in public view and then burned to death at the stake while still naked. He was denied the customary mercy of strangulation before being burned.
Galileo was another victim of the Roman Inquisition, who in 1633 was shown the instruments of torture, following which he recanted his supposedly heretical theory that the earth revolves around the sun. He was held under house arrest for the remainder of his life.
John Locke, born in 1632 in Wrington, England, was a significant philosopher of the Enlightenment. He was educated at Westminster School in London and later attended Christ Church, Oxford. At Oxford, Locke's early academic work included teaching duties, during which he developed some of his initial philosophical ideas.
Locke's intellectual pursuits ranged from philosophy to medicine and natural philosophy (now known as science). He actively engaged with leading thinkers of his time, including Robert Boyle and Thomas Sydenham, and became a member of the Royal Society.
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Locke made significant contributions to political philosophy and philosophy of mind. However, his stance on certain issues, particularly slavery and racial superiority, raise serious questions as to his bona fides.
Locke, despite criticising slavery except in the context of defeated aggressors, was paradoxically a shareholder in the Royal African Company, which controlled the British slave trade. Furthermore, in his work An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, he propagated ideas suggesting the intellectual inferiority of non-European peoples, including children, idiots, savages, and the illiterate. This apparent contradiction between his advocacy for individual rights and his involvement in the slave trade is to be condemned.
Locke was also involved in the governance of the Carolina colony in North America. He co-authored the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina in 1669, attempting to establish a feudal system of government in the colony. Article 22 of this document granted lords of the land significant authority over their subjects, and Article 110 included provisions restricting the movement of individuals without their lord's permission.
In Locke's Two Treatises of Government (1690), he espoused the idea of natural rights and equality among individuals, proclaiming that no one should harm another in life, health, liberty, or possessions. This assertion, however, is hypocritical given his involvement in systems that oppressed and violated the rights of others.
Despite his significant contributions to philosophy and political thought, Locke's contradictory actions and beliefs have led to debates about his legacy, particularly in the context of slavery and colonialism. It is essential to acknowledge both his influential ideas and his shortcomings when assessing his impact on Enlightenment thinking and its ethical implications.
Throughout his life, Locke faced health challenges, dying in 1704. Because of his contributions to philosophy, political thought, and religious tolerance, he is considered one of the key figures of the Enlightenment. His most famous statement, which obviously referred to Whites only, is:
The end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom. For in all the states of created beings capable of laws, where there is no law, there is no freedom.
François-Marie Arouet, known as François-Marie, was born in Paris, France, on November 21, 1694, to a wealthy attorney. Despite being a sickly child not expected to survive, he lived to the age of 83. After his mother's death, he received education from the Jesuits at Lycee Louis-le-Grand in Paris, where he excelled in Latin and admired classical writers like Horace, Virgil, and Cicero.
At the age of 11, François-Marie was introduced by his godfather, Abbé de Châteauneuf, to the renowned courtesan Ninon de l'Enclos, who saw great potential in him and left him 2,000 francs in her will for buying books. This encounter left a lasting impression on him. He rejected religious dogma and miracles, embracing Deism, a belief that God's existence is revealed through rational thought and the observation of nature, influenced by Abbé de Châteauneuf's theological but anti-Church teachings.
François-Marie's early literary efforts showcased his rejection of religious orthodoxy and his satirical inclinations, evident in works like La Moisade, which promoted Deism and ridiculed Mosaic Law. Despite opposition from some Jesuit teachers, he gained recognition for his talents, winning awards for Latin discourse and verse composition in 1710.
Throughout his life, François-Marie, who later adopted the pen name Voltaire, authored over 2,000 works, including novels, plays, poems, essays, critiques, and pamphlets, many of which challenged the authority of the Catholic Church. He became a prominent figure in the Enlightenment, influencing the course of French intellectual and cultural history.
In 1763, François-Marie learned about a tragic event that had occurred in 1761. Marc-Antoine Calas, the eldest son of Jean Calas, a 63-year-old cloth merchant, was found dead in Toulouse, a city in the South of France. Marc-Antoine's body displayed a rope burn around his neck, and authorities were uncertain whether it was a case of suicide or murder by hanging. The Calas family, who were Protestant Huguenots, faced severe discrimination in predominantly Catholic France, and suspicions arose that they had murdered Marc-Antoine to prevent his conversion to Catholicism.
Jean Calas was eventually put on trial, found guilty, and sentenced to death in a harrowing and brutal manner. He endured excruciating torture, including having his arms pulled out of their sockets and his body forciblyswollen by water ingestion. Calas was paraded through the streets of Toulouse, subjected to further torment as his limbs were crushed with iron bars, and then strangled before his body was burned on a pyre.
Upon learning of this gruesome injustice, François-Marie was incensed and launched a relentless campaign to vindicate Calas's name. Through François-Marie tireless efforts, including writings and advocacy, Jean Calas was posthumously declared innocent, and his reputation was restored. This case highlighted the need for justice, religious tolerance, and the protection of individual rights, all of which were central Enlightenment ideals that Voltaire championed throughout his life.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1712, to Calvinist parents. His early life was marked by illness, the loss of his mother, and a complex relationship with his father. Despite his father's love, Rousseau was mostly cared for by his aunt, Susannah, who introduced him to literature and philosophy.
At a young age, Rousseau was sent to study Latin but had to return home after an incident. He then began an apprenticeship with an engraver, which he found oppressive and likened to slavery. Eventually, he left his master and embarked on a journey through various European cities, working as an itinerant musician and teacher.
Rousseau's life took a significant turn when he converted to Catholicism and moved to Paris. There, he became friends with Enlightenment thinkers like Denis Diderot and began contributing to Diderot's Encyclopedia. He also authored several influential works, including Discourse on the Arts and Sciences and Discourse on the Origin of Inequality Among Men.
In his writings, Rousseau critiqued the corrupting influence of civilization and inequality on human nature and advocated for a return to a more natural state. He also emphasized the importance of education and questioned prevailing social norms.
Rousseau's personal life was marked by complex relationships, including a romantic involvement with Louise-Éléanore de Warens, whom he considered both a lover and a mother figure. Later, he formed a lasting partnership with Thérèse Levasseur, with whom he had a tumultuous relationship but shared his life until his death.
Maximilien Robespierrewas born in Arras, France, in 1758. His early life was marked by adversity as he lost his mother at a young age, and his father abandoned the family. Raised by relatives, he excelled in his education, earning a law degree from the Sorbonne in Paris.
In the late eighteenth century, France was divided into three social classes, or estates, known as the Ancien Régime. The First Estate comprised the clergy, who owned a significant portion of land and paid no taxes. The Second Estate consisted of the nobility, who held titles and paid no taxes either. The Third Estate, which included the majority of the population, ranged from peasants to the urban middle class and bore the brunt of taxes and financial burdens.
Dissatisfaction with the monarchy grew due to mounting debts and the extravagant spending of King Louis XVI and his Austrian wife, Marie-Antoinette. The financial crisis and inequality among the estates made France ripe for revolution.
Maximilien, influenced by the writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, supported the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which emphasized the importance of the general will and equality before the law.
The Estates-General, a representative body of the three estates, had not convened since 1614. However, in 1789, King Louis XVI called for the Estates-General to address the financial crisis. When the meeting failed to produce results, Maximilien and others from the Third Estate broke away and formed the National Convention, a precursor to the French Revolution.
Maximilien's involvement with the Jacobins, a political club, propelled him to prominence during the revolution, which had commenced with the storming of the Bastille in late 1789.
Maximilien played a crucial role in the execution of King Louis XVI in 1793, which marked a significant turning point in the Revolution.
Following the king's execution, food riots erupted in Paris, driven by radical priest Jacques Roux, who advocated violence and wealth redistribution. Maximilien was part of the Committee of Public Safety, where he promoted the use of terror as a means to consolidate the revolution, arguing that it was necessary for justice.
During the Reign of Terror, the Catholic Church was suppressed, leading to the exile and death of many priests, and the desecration of churches and cathedrals. Thousands, including nobles and clergy, were executed during this period.
Despite his earlier opposition to capital punishment, Maximilien endorsed it during the Reign of Terror. He also established the Cult of the Supreme Being as the state religion. However, his radicalism eventually led to his arrest and execution in 1794, effectively marking the end of the Terror.
Maximilien's death brought about a shift in the revolutionary slogan from liberty, equality, fraternity to simply equality. While he played a significant role in overthrowing a corrupt and repressive system, his legacy was marred by mass murder, sacrilege, and hypocrisy. The Marxists/Fabians who were to follow, keep his legacy alive by the murder of the unborn.
Karl Marx was born in Trier, Prussia, in 1818 to a Jewish family that later converted to Lutheranism to circumvent anti-Jewish restrictions. He was initially influenced by Enlightenment philosophy and studied law but eventually pursued philosophy. Marx became involved in radical student groups at the University of Berlin and was influenced by the ideas of Georg Hegel.
After his father's death in 1838, Marx turned to philosophy and wrote a radical doctoral thesis, which he completed in 1841. However, it was considered too extreme for the University of Bonn, and he received his doctorate from the University of Jena instead.
Marx's life was marked by political activism, including contributions to the newspaper Rheinische Zeitung and later to Deutsch-FranzösischeJahrbücher. He married Jenny von Westphalen in 1843 and moved to Paris, where he met Friedrich Engels. Together, they wrote the Communist Manifesto in 1847, outlining their vision for a classless society. Both were racists.
Marx faced political expulsions and lived in various European cities before settling in London in 1850. He struggled financially but continued his work, including writing Das Kapital,which focused on capitalism and class struggle. Marx believed that workers (proletariat) would eventually revolt against the capitalist bourgeoisie and establish a communist society, marked by the abolition of private property.
Marx's personal life included a close relationship with his family and financial support from Engels. He and his wife, Jenny, had seven children, but only three survived to adulthood. Marx died in 1883 after spending the later part of his life in capitalist England.
Marx's ideas evolved into Communism, the implementation of which by leaders like Lenin, Stalinand Mao, led to oppressive regimes and the death of millions. Marx's legacy is one ofviolence and totalitarianism.
To summarise the effect of the Enlightenment:
- It resulted in the end of the control of European monarchies and governments by the pope in Rome, and associated persecutions and cruelties.
- It was directed to the benefit of the whites only. I have previously had an article published here on Thomas Jefferson, who drafted the USA Declaration of Independence while being an owner of slaves.
- It led to Communism through Marx, which in turn gave rise to the Fabians who have embarked on their next step forward to destroy white Australia through the Voice referendum. I have previously had an article published here on the Fabians and one of its founders,George Bernard Shaw.
- The transition from the Popes to the Marxists/Fabians was out of the frying pan into the fire.
